Sri Lanka Overview

Anuradhapura period

According to the Mahāvamsa, a key historical text from the 5th century, the earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka were the Yakshas and Nagas. The island’s recorded history starts around 543 BCE with the arrival of Prince Vijaya, a semi-legendary figure from Bengal. Vijaya and his 700 followers settled in Sri Lanka and established the Kingdom of Tambapanni, near what is now Mannar. He is recognized as the first of around 189 kings recorded in texts like the Dipavamsa, Mahāvamsa, and Cūḷavaṃsa.

The Anuradhapura period, lasting from 377 BCE to 1017 CE, began with the establishment of the Anuradhapura Kingdom in 380 BCE under King Pandukabhaya. Anuradhapura served as the capital of Sri Lanka for nearly 1,400 years. During this time, the ancient Sinhalese made significant progress in construction, building impressive tanks, dagobas (stupas), and palaces.

A major turning point in Sri Lanka’s history occurred during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa when Buddhism was introduced from India. In 250 BCE, Mahinda, a Buddhist monk and son of Emperor Ashoka of India, arrived in Mihintale with the teachings of Buddhism. His arrival deeply influenced the island, leading the king to embrace Buddhism and spread it across Sri Lanka.

Throughout ancient times, Sri Lanka’s successive kingdoms played a key role in preserving and spreading Buddhism. They established many Buddhist schools and monasteries and supported the spread of Buddhism into Southeast Asia. Sri Lankan monks, known as Bhikkhus, studied at the famous Buddhist University of Nalanda in India, which was later destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji. Many important texts from Nalanda are believed to have been preserved in Sri Lankan monasteries, helping to safeguard the Tripiṭaka and other Buddhist scriptures.

In 245 BCE, Bhikkhuni Sanghamitta, a Buddhist nun, arrived in Sri Lanka with a sapling from the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree. This tree is said to be a descendant of the original Bodhi Tree under which Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment. It is considered the oldest living tree with a recorded history and remains a revered symbol in Sri Lankan Buddhism.

Sri Lanka faced several foreign invasions during its ancient history. The first significant invasion occurred during the reign of King Suratissa, who was defeated by Sena and Guttika, two South Indian horse traders. Later, in 205 BCE, the Chola ruler Elara invaded and overthrew King Asela, ruling Sri Lanka for 44 years. Elara’s rule ended when Dutugamunu, a prince from the south, defeated him in the Battle of Vijithapura. Over time, the Sinhala Kingdom faced many invasions by South Indian dynasties such as the Chola, Pandya, and Pallava, as well as incursions from the Kalinga kingdom (now Odisha) and the Malay Peninsula.

In 25 BCE, the Fourth Buddhist Council of Theravada Buddhism was held at Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya in Sri Lanka, under the rule of King Valagamba. This council was convened after a period of severe famine led to the death of many Buddhist monks, who had been preserving the Pāli Canon orally. To prevent the loss of these teachings, the surviving monks decided to write down the Canon on palm-leaf manuscripts. These manuscripts were later sent to countries like Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos, ensuring the preservation and spread of Buddhist scriptures.

In 993 CE, the Chola emperor Rajaraja I invaded Sri Lanka, forcing the Sinhalese ruler Mahinda V to retreat to the southern part of the island. Rajaraja’s son, Rajendra I, followed up with a major invasion in 1017, capturing Mahinda V and taking him to India. This led to the sacking of Anuradhapura and the fall of its kingdom. After this, the Cholas moved the capital to Polonnaruwa.

Polonnaruwa period

After a 17-year struggle, Vijayabahu I successfully drove out the Chola invaders from Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country after more than a century. He also sought help from Burma, asking for monks to revive Buddhism, which had almost disappeared during the Chola occupation. In the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided into three regions: Ruhunu, Pihiti, and Maya.

During the reign of Parākramabāhu the Great (1153–1186), Sri Lanka’s irrigation system was greatly expanded, marking the peak of the island’s power. Parākramabāhu built 1,470 reservoirs—more than any other ruler in Sri Lanka—repaired 165 dams, and managed over 3,900 canals, including 163 major reservoirs and 2,376 smaller ones. His most remarkable achievement was the Parakrama Samudra, the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu is also known for two important military campaigns: one in southern India during a Pandyan succession war, and another against the kings of Burma (Ramanna) in response to perceived offenses against Sri Lanka.

After the death of Parākramabāhu the Great, Sri Lanka’s power began to fade. In 1215, Kalinga Magha, an invader of uncertain origin who is thought to have founded the Jaffna kingdom, launched a major invasion. He sailed from Kalinga with a fleet of 100 ships and 24,000 soldiers, covering 690 nautical miles. Unlike previous invaders, Magha caused widespread destruction in the Kingdoms of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, looting and ruining them beyond repair. His rule focused on exploiting the land and dismantling the traditions of Rajarata, leading many native Sinhalese to migrate to the southern and western parts of Sri Lanka, as well as to the central mountainous regions, in order to escape his control.

Transitional period

Sri Lanka faced great challenges in recovering from the destruction caused by Kalinga Magha’s invasion. King Vijayabâhu III led the efforts to resist the invaders and moved the capital to Dambadeniya. Meanwhile, the northern region evolved into the independent Jaffna kingdom, which remained separate from the southern kingdoms, except for a brief period between 1450 and 1467 CE. During this time, Prince Sapumal, the adopted son of King Parâkramabâhu VI, conquered the north and ruled the Jaffna kingdom.

Between 1215 and the early 16th century, the capitals of southern and central Sri Lanka shifted multiple times. These included Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Gampola, Raigama, Kotte, Sitawaka, and finally Kandy. In 1247, King Chandrabhanu of Tambralinga, a vassal state of the Srivijaya Empire, briefly invaded Sri Lanka but was soon driven out by the Pandyan dynasty from South India. This invasion highlighted the ongoing presence of Austronesian merchants from regions like Indonesia and the Philippines, who had been visiting Sri Lanka since 200 BCE.

In 1409, the famous Chinese admiral Zheng He arrived in Galle, Sri Lanka, and engaged in a conflict with King Vira Alakesvara of Gampola. Zheng He captured and later released the king, marking his visit with the erection of the Galle Trilingual Inscription—a stone tablet inscribed in Chinese, Tamil, and Persian. This inscription, discovered in 1911 and now housed in the Colombo National Museum, is a significant artifact in Sri Lanka’s maritime history.

Early Modern Period

Spilbergen meeting king Vimaladharmasoorya of Kandy, 1602 © commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SpilbergenVimala.jpg

The early modern era in Sri Lanka started with the arrival of Portuguese explorer Lourenço de Almeida, the son of Francisco de Almeida, in 1505. By 1517, the Portuguese had built a fort in Colombo and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. After years of conflict with the Portuguese, King Vimaladharmasuriya I moved his kingdom to the safer inland city of Kandy in 1592. However, in 1619, the Portuguese captured the Jaffna kingdom, ending its independence.

During the reign of Rajasinha II, Dutch explorers arrived in Sri Lanka. In 1638, the king made a deal with the Dutch East India Company to help drive out the Portuguese, who held much of the coast. The Dutch-Portuguese War ended with a Dutch victory, and by 1656, the Dutch had taken control of Colombo. However, the Dutch did not fully honor their agreement with the king and kept the territories they had captured. During this period, a new ethnic group known as the Burghers began to emerge, resulting from the mixing of Dutch and local Sri Lankan populations.

Kandyan period

The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy in Sri Lanka. In 1595, King Vimaladharmasuriya brought the sacred Tooth Relic, an important symbol of royal and religious power for the Sinhalese, to Kandy and established the Temple of the Tooth. Despite ongoing conflicts with European powers, the kingdom managed to survive. However, after King Vira Narendrasinha’s death in 1739, a succession crisis arose. He was married to a Telugu-speaking Nayakkar princess from South India, but they had no children.

Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, © Vivecius at English Wikipedia | creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en

With the support of the monk Weliwita Sarankara and bypassing the rightful heir Unambuwe Bandara, the crown was given to the brother of one of Narendrasinha’s princesses, overlooking Narendrasinha’s own son by a Sinhalese concubine. This new king was crowned Sri Vijaya Rajasinha later that year. Despite their efforts, the Nayakkar kings made several unsuccessful attempts to capture Dutch-controlled areas.

In 1796, the British Empire easily took control of Sri Lanka’s coastal regions, renaming the territory British Ceylon. Two years later, in 1798, King Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha, the third of the four Nayakkar kings, died of a fever. His eighteen-year-old nephew, Kannasamy, was then crowned as Sri Vikrama Rajasinha. In 1803, the young king successfully repelled a British invasion, resulting in a stalemate in the First Kandyan War.

Colonial Sri Lanka (1815–1948)

By this time, the entire coastal region of Sri Lanka was under the control of the British East India Company, following the Treaty of Amiens. On February 14, 1815, the British captured Kandy during the Second Kandyan War, bringing an end to Sri Lanka’s independence. Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native king, was exiled to India, and the Kandyan Convention officially handed over the entire island to the British Empire. An attempt by Sri Lankan noblemen to resist British rule during the Uva Rebellion in 1818 was quickly crushed by Governor Robert Brownrigg.

The modern era in Sri Lanka began with the Colebrooke-Cameron reforms of 1833, which introduced a liberal political culture based on the rule of law. These reforms unified the Kandyan and coastal provinces into one administrative unit and established an executive and legislative council, laying the foundation for a representative government. Around the same time, coffee plantations were successfully developed, making coffee the country’s main export.

However, the economic depression of 1847 caused a sharp drop in coffee prices, stalling growth. In response, the governor imposed various taxes, including on firearms, dogs, shops, and boats, and reintroduced a labor tax requiring six days of unpaid work on roads or a cash equivalent. These measures angered the local population, leading to a rebellion in 1848. In 1869, a devastating leaf disease called Hemileia vastatrix destroyed the coffee industry within fifteen years. The British then shifted to tea cultivation, which became highly successful in the following decades, alongside large-scale rubber plantations in the early 20th century.

Kandyan Chiefs in 1905 © en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kandyan_Chiefs_in_1905.JPG

By the late 19th century, a new educated class emerged in Sri Lanka, crossing racial and caste boundaries, as the British sought to fill the Ceylon Civil Service and professions like law, education, engineering, and medicine with locals. These new leaders represented various ethnic communities in the Ceylon Legislative Council. In response to Christian missionary efforts, Buddhist and Hindu revival movements gained momentum. The early 20th century saw a rare unity between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders, a harmony that has since been lost. The first recorded case of malaria in Ceylon occurred in 1906, signaling the start of a major health crisis.

In 1919, leading Sinhalese and Tamil political organizations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, led by Ponnambalam Arunachalam, with the goal of pushing for more constitutional reforms from the British rulers. However, the Congress struggled to gain widespread support. The governor’s promotion of “communal representation,” highlighted by the controversial “Colombo seat” that alternated between Sinhalese and Tamil control, further weakened the Congress, causing it to lose momentum by the mid-1920s.

The Donoughmore reforms of 1931 abolished communal representation and introduced universal adult franchise, significantly increasing voter participation from just 4%. Tamil political leaders strongly opposed this change, fearing their diminished influence in the newly formed State Council of Ceylon. In 1937, Tamil leader G. G. Ponnambalam called for a 50-50 representation in the State Council, seeking equal representation between the Sinhalese and other ethnic groups. However, this demand was not met by the Soulbury reforms of 1944-45.

1948 – 2010

D. S. Senanayake (First Prime Minister of Sri Lanka), © https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Official_Photographic_Portrait_of_Don_Stephen_Senanayaka_(1884-1952).jpg

The Soulbury Constitution granted Ceylon dominion status, leading to the country’s independence on February 4, 1948. D. S. Senanayake became the first Prime Minister, with key Tamil leaders like Ponnambalam and Arunachalam Mahadeva serving in his cabinet. The British Royal Navy remained active in Trincomalee until 1956. A massive protest over the removal of rice rations eventually forced Prime Minister Dudley Senanayake to resign.

Hon S.W.R.D.Bandaranayaka, © commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Official_Photographic_Portrait_of_S.W.R.D.Bandaranayaka_(1899-1959).jpg

In 1956, S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike was elected Prime Minister. His three-year term had a profound impact on the country, as he positioned himself as the “protector of Sinhalese culture.” One of his most controversial moves was the introduction of the Sinhala Only Act, making Sinhala the sole official language of the government. Although this policy was partially reversed in 1958, it caused significant concern among the Tamil community, who felt their language and culture were under threat.

The Federal Party (FP) responded to the Sinhala Only Act with a campaign of non-violent resistance called satyagraha. In an attempt to ease growing ethnic tensions, Prime Minister Bandaranaike signed the Bandaranaike–Chelvanayakam Pact with S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, the FP leader. However, the pact did not succeed in calming protests from opposition groups and Buddhist clergy. The Act, along with government colonization schemes, deepened the political divide between Sinhalese and Tamil leaders. Bandaranaike’s term ended abruptly when he was assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.

Sirimavo Bandaranaike, © https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sirimavo_Bandaranaike,_Prime_Minister_of_Ceylon_1960_(cropped).PNG

Sirimavo Bandaranaike, the widow of the late Prime Minister, took office in 1960 and successfully thwarted a coup attempt in 1962. During her second term, her government adopted socialist economic policies and strengthened ties with the Soviet Union and China, while maintaining a non-aligned foreign policy.

In 1971, Ceylon faced a Marxist uprising that was quickly suppressed. The 1971 Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) uprising, also known as the 1971 Revolt, was the first of two failed armed rebellions by the communist JVP against Sri Lanka’s socialist United Front Government, led by Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike. The uprising began on April 5, 1971, and lasted until June. The rebels briefly controlled several towns and rural areas, but the armed forces, with substantial support from allied countries, eventually regained control.

In 1972, the country became a republic and changed its name to Sri Lanka, officially ending its dominion status.

Throughout the 1970s, growing dissatisfaction among minority groups and the use of ethnic sentiments in political campaigns by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders contributed to the rise of Tamil militancy in the north. The Sirimavo government’s standardization policy, designed to address educational inequalities and provide more opportunities for disadvantaged students, unintentionally reduced the number of Tamil students in universities. This policy fueled growing tensions, leading to the assassination of Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in 1975, marking a significant escalation in the conflict.

J. R. Jayawardene,© commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:J._R._Jayawardene,_President_of_the_Democratic_Socialist_Republic_of_Sri_Lanka_on_June_20,_1984.jpg

In 1977, J. R. Jayawardene’s government took power, defeating the unpopular United Front administration. Jayawardene introduced a new constitution, a free-market economy, and a powerful executive presidency modeled after the French system, making Sri Lanka the first country in South Asia to embrace economic liberalization.

Starting in 1983, escalating ethnic tensions led to an intermittent insurgency by the LTTE. The civil war officially began after an LTTE attack on 13 soldiers, which triggered anti-Tamil riots reportedly supported by hardline Sinhalese ministers. These riots forced over 150,000 Tamil civilians to flee the country, seeking safety abroad.

In 1987, the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord was signed, leading to the deployment of the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) in northern Sri Lanka to stabilize the region and counter the LTTE.

The same year, the JVP launched its second uprising in the south. The 1987–1989 JVP insurrection, also known as the 1988–1989 revolt, was an armed rebellion led by the Marxist-Leninist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna against the Sri Lankan government. Like the previous 1971 uprising, it ended in failure. The main phase of this conflict lasted from April 1987 to December 1989, involving subversion, assassinations, and attacks on both military and civilian targets. The Sri Lankan government responded with counter-insurgency operations to suppress the revolt.

In October 1990, the LTTE forcibly expelled Muslim residents (Sri Lankan Moors) from the north.

Ranasinghe Premadasa © Md. Lutfar Rahman Binu | creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en

R. Premadasa’s presidency from 1989 to 1993 was a period of significant political and economic change. He focused on rural development and poverty reduction, launching major housing and infrastructure projects to help the underprivileged. However, his tenure was also marked by intense conflict, as the country was deeply involved in the civil war against the LTTE and dealing with the aftermath of the second JVP insurrection.

Premadasa’s leadership ended tragically on May 1, 1993, when an LTTE suicide bomber assassinated him during a May Day rally in Colombo. This event was a critical moment in Sri Lanka’s history, leading to a period of political instability and change. Despite the controversies and challenges he faced, Premadasa is remembered for his efforts to bridge the gap between the rich and poor and his vision for a more inclusive Sri Lanka.

Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga © Vikalpa Sri Lanka | creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en

Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga became President of Sri Lanka after the 1994 election, following the assassination of her main rival, Gamini Dissanayake, by the LTTE. Her presidency, which lasted from 1994 to 2005, was marked by both progress and difficulties. As the daughter of two former prime ministers, Kumaratunga focused on ending the long-standing civil war with the LTTE, pushing for economic reforms, and improving women’s rights.

Despite her efforts, the conflict with the LTTE continued, leading to ongoing violence and instability. Her time in office also faced economic challenges and political opposition. Kumaratunga survived an assassination attempt by the LTTE in 1999, highlighting the severe dangers of the conflict.

Her presidency is remembered for her continuous efforts to achieve peace and development in Sri Lanka, leaving a lasting impact on the country’s political landscape and reconciliation efforts.

In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and the LTTE reached a ceasefire agreement with the help of Norway. However, the devastating Asian tsunami in 2004 caused massive destruction in Sri Lanka, killing over 30,000 people and displacing more than 500,000. Despite several peace talks from 1985 to 2006, conflicts between the government and Tamil insurgents continued. Fighting resumed in 2006, and the government officially ended the ceasefire in 2008.

Mahinda Rajapaksa © World Economic Forum | creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/deed.en

Mahinda Rajapaksa served as President of Sri Lanka from 2005 to 2015. During his presidency, the Sri Lankan Armed Forces defeated the LTTE on May 19, 2009, bringing an end to the 26-year civil war and restoring full government control. The conflict resulted in an estimated 60,000 to 100,000 deaths. Rajapaksa focused on rebuilding the country, investing heavily in infrastructure projects such as roads, bridges, and urban development.

However, Rajapaksa’s presidency was controversial. He faced accusations of human rights abuses during the final stages of the war, as well as claims of corruption and authoritarianism. Despite these controversies, he is remembered for his role in ending the conflict and his efforts to advance national development.

Rajapaksa’s legacy is mixed, with notable achievements in reconstruction overshadowed by ongoing controversies.

2010 to 2022

Gotabaya Rajapaksa was President of Sri Lanka from 2019 to 2022. His presidency was focused on strengthening national security and implementing economic reforms. As a former defense secretary, Rajapaksa aimed to enhance military efficiency and boost economic growth through infrastructure projects and changes in agriculture.

However, his time in office was marred by severe criticism due to mismanagement and a poor response to a worsening economic crisis. This crisis resulted in severe shortages of essential goods, fuel, and medicine, leading to widespread public unrest. Rajapaksa faced intense pressure, with protests erupting over his handling of the economy and allegations of corruption. In July 2022, amid growing protests and political chaos, he fled the country.

Rajapaksa’s presidency is remembered for its ambitious economic goals and the significant crisis that led to his resignation, highlighting both his efforts to advance Sri Lanka and the challenges that led to his downfall.

In 2019, Sri Lanka began experiencing severe economic troubles due to rising foreign debt, large government budget deficits from tax cuts, and a food crisis worsened by a ban on chemical fertilizers and a shift to mandatory organic farming.

Anti government protest in Sri Lanka 2022 © AntanO | commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:AntanO | creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en

The crisis, the worst in 73 years, led to a food emergency in August 2021 and a declaration of economic collapse by Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe in June 2022. Sri Lanka defaulted on its $51 billion sovereign debt for the first time, facing high inflation, long power outages, and fuel shortages.

These conditions triggered widespread protests, including the storming of the President’s House on July 9, 2022, and the resignation of President Gotabaya Rajapaksa. On the same day, protesters also attacked the Prime Minister’s private residence.

Post-2022 Economic Progress and Stability Under President Ranil Wickremesinghe

After Gotabaya Rajapaksa’s resignation and the 2022 protests, Ranil Wickremesinghe became Sri Lanka’s President. His administration has focused on stabilizing the country and addressing the severe economic crisis that led to the protests. Wickremesinghe has rolled out several economic reforms to restore financial stability and secure international support.

Ranil Wickremesinghe © 内閣官房内閣広報室 | creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Under his leadership, Sri Lanka has made progress in negotiating with international lenders and receiving support from various countries and organizations. Key actions have included restructuring debt, managing inflation, and improving public services. Although challenges remain, Wickremesinghe’s government has made some strides in stabilizing the economy and rebuilding public trust.

Since the 2022 protests, there have been gradual improvements in economic conditions, though the country still faces significant obstacles. Wickremesinghe continues to focus on maintaining stability and steering Sri Lanka towards recovery and growth.